4 Because of their potent antimicrobial activity and unique mode of action, nanoparticles offer an attractive alternative to conventional

antibiotics in the development of new-generation antibiotics. Of the range of nanoparticle options available, silver nanoparticles have received Crizotinib mouse intensive interest because of their various applications in the medical field.5 Although silver has been used as an antimicrobial substance for centuries,6 it is only recently that researchers have shown unprecedented interest in this element as a therapeutic agent to overcome the problem of drug resistance caused by the abuse of antibiotics.7, 8 and 9 The filamentous fungi posses some advantages over bacteria in nanoparticle synthesis, as most of the fungi are easy to handle, require Obeticholic Acid in vivo simple nutrients, possess high wall-binding capacity, as well as intracellular metal uptake capabilities.10 Amongst fungi, not much work has been done on endophytic fungi producing silver nanoparticles. Very few reports such as Colletotrichum sp isolated from Geranium leaves Pelargonium graveolens for the extra-cellular synthesis of gold nanoparticles. 11 Another study was on the production of silver nanoparticles by Aspergillus clavatus (AzS-275), an

endophytic fungus isolated from sterilized stem tissues of Azadirachta indica and their antibacterial studies. 12 Therefore, our attempt was to screen for endophytic fungi which are nanoparticle producers from healthy leaves of Curcuma longa (turmeric) and subject for extracellular biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles. We were successful enough to isolate a fungus Pencillium sp. from healthy leaves of C. longa (turmeric) which is a good producer of silver nanoparticle. The extracellular biosynthesis

of silver nanoparticles was further subjected to antibacterial activity against pathogenic gram negative bacteria. Healthy leaves of C. longa (turmeric) were collected from Department of Botany Gulbarga University, Gulbarga. The leaves brought to the laboratory washed several times under running tap water not and cut into small pieces. These pieces were surface sterilized by sequentially rinsing in 70% ethanol (C2H5OH) for 30 s, 0.01% mercuric chloride (HgCl2) for 5 min, 0.5% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) for 2–3 min with sterile distilled water then allowed to dry under sterile condition. The cut surface of the segment was placed in petri dish containing PDA (Potato dextrose agar) supplemented with streptomycin sulfate (250 μg/ml) at 28 °C for 3–4 days. Aliquots of 1 ml of the last washed distilled water were inoculated in 9 ml of potato dextrose broth for evaluating the effectiveness of surface sterilization. The plates were examined after the completion of incubation period and individual pure fungal colonies being transferred onto other PDA plates.

This suggests that propagation of influenza viruses in these three MDCK lines does not lead to major changes in the amino acid sequence of the hemagglutinin. The antigenic properties of viruses propagated in the three MDCK lines were determined by HI test using post-infection ferret antisera to reference or vaccine viruses used during the period when the clinical specimens were collected. The majority of viruses propagated in the three MDCK

cell lines remained within ≤2-fold titer differences, suggesting that a high proportion of viruses propagated in different MDCK cells lines are antigenically similar to the reference viruses and would merit characterization by reciprocal HI testing. These results indicate that isolation and passage of influenza viruses in the commonly used MDCK cell lines can yield antigenically distinct viruses (HI titer differences of >4 fold) with BI 2536 supplier low frequency. SRT1720 As soon as vaccine manufacturers adopt

the use of cell culture–isolated influenza viruses in vaccine production, one or more of the approved cell lines could be made available to WHO Collaborating Centers for the isolation of viruses from virus-positive samples received from National Influenza Centers. These qualified cell lines could provide an alternative to eggs in the event that isolation of a suitable virus for vaccine production has not been possible. Preliminary results from a follow-up studies show that H3N2 viruses with high infectivity harvested from MDCK cultures can be propagated in eggs. Results of egg based studies will be the subject of a separate report. To estimate the potential performance of viruses isolated in various cell lines in cell-based

vaccine manufacturing, one influenza A virus of each subtype and one influenza B virus of each lineage isolated in each of the three MDCK cell lines was grown in a small-scale production experiment using the three MDCK and the VERO cell lines at Astemizole the corresponding vaccine manufacturing sites. Infectivity titers in cell culture supernatants were determined using different methods at each manufacturing plant, which makes quantitative comparisons unfeasible. However, antigen amounts as well as infectivity titers did not vary significantly in the different combinations of isolation and production cell lines. It is thus likely that viruses isolated in certified cell lines by WHO Collaborating Centers can be successfully propagated in any of the cell lines currently used by different vaccine producers. Virus protein yields were determined after concentration and purification of virus from small-scale production. In these experiments the MDCK-2 cell line, in accordance to routine production procedures at this manufacturing plant, was used at one order of magnitude lower cell density than the other cell lines. As a consequence, protein yields from this cell line were approximately 2 to 10 times lower than those observed from the other cell lines.

Large placebo-controlled human

trachoma vaccine trials, using whole organisms administered by intramuscular injection, were completed in Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, The Gambia, India and Ethiopia in the 1960s [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35] and [36]. INCB024360 in vitro In Saudi Arabia, two doses of a bivalent killed whole organism vaccine, or placebo, were given to children aged less than 3 years, some of whom already had trachoma. Three vaccine groups were included, who received high or low dose aqueous vaccine, or low dose vaccine with adjuvant. Less active trachoma was seen at 6 and 12 months in children receiving the low dose aqueous vaccine compared to placebo, but a higher incidence was found in those who received a higher dose. There was no difference in active trachoma or ocular Ct infection between vaccine and placebo arms when the results were pooled, though a reduced bacterial Z-VAD-FMK mw load (determined by counting chlamydial inclusions in conjunctival scrapings) was found in children receiving high

dose aqueous vaccine and vaccine with adjuvant [30] and [31]. In the first trial in Taiwan four doses of a formalin-inactivated, alum-absorbed elementary body vaccine made from a local serovar C isolate, or placebo, was given to pre-school siblings of children with active trachoma over a two year period. There was less active trachoma in vaccinated children (8% vs 18%), but the protective effect was no longer seen one year after the final dose. Two subsequent trials used killed whole organism vaccine Sclareol in mineral oil, given to primary school children. A bivalent

vaccine, containing a Taiwanese serovar B isolate in addition to the serovar C isolate used previously serovars, reduced the incidence of active trachoma from 8.8% to 5.1%, but this difference was not significant. In a second trial, of a monovalent vaccine containing only serovar C, there was a significantly higher incidence of active trachoma in the vaccinated group, but no difference between the groups in disease severity [32] and [33]. In The Gambia, live vaccines were used [34]. In the first trial, the therapeutic effect of vaccination with a Gambian isolate was assessed by randomising children with clinical signs of active trachoma to receive vaccine or placebo [35]. Eight and 17 weeks after vaccination there was a significant clinical improvement in the vaccinated but not the placebo group, and the prevalence of Ct infection (determined by isolation in eggs) was also reduced in the vaccinated group. The protective effect was no longer seen at one year. In the second and third Gambian trials the prophylactic effect of vaccination was determined [37]. In the second trial two doses of a monovalent vaccine, made from a local isolate with a mineral oil adjuvant, were given 6 months apart.

Once she’s born, she belongs to the government … it can protect her” (IDI Butimba). CB-839 We found that teachers, parents, pupils and health workers interviewed in our qualitative sub-study had limited or no knowledge about cervical cancer, HPV, and the HPV vaccine. Generally, most welcomed a vaccine to prevent cervical cancer and most parents said they would agree to have their daughter

vaccinated although some adopted a “wait and see” approach. Most had a strong belief that vaccines prevent diseases. Our findings are similar to formative research results by PATH in Uganda, Peru, Vietnam and India prior to HPV vaccination [29] and [30], and recent studies on vaccine acceptability in Ghana, Botswana, Kenya, and South Africa [31], [32], [33] and [34]. In a study amongst 147 Kenyan women seeking health services there was little knowledge about either cervical cancer or the HPV vaccine [31]. Findings were similar in South African antenatal attenders [34]. In Botswana, awareness Ixazomib of cervical cancer was higher amongst many adults (mostly female) but again, few had heard of HPV vaccine [32]. In a Ghanaian study among 264 women, ages 18–65, where most had received higher education after secondary school, 87% of study participants

had heard about cervical cancer and 40% about the HPV vaccine [33]. Despite variability in cancer and vaccine awareness, in all of these sub-Saharan studies, the majority of the women were willing to vaccinate their child. Anti-fertility rumours, raised as a potential issue for the vaccine in our study and the study in Uganda, are widespread in Africa in relation to vaccines and health-related products and reflect underlying suspicions about public health interventions [35] and [36]. People may object to imported, foreign drugs and new medical interventions; knowing that the HPV vaccine has already been administered in Africa and

is approved by the Tanzanian government was thought to be persuasive by many respondents. secondly Issues of power and control over health emerged in the discussions about opt-out consent. Health workers saw public health actions as mandatory and considered that individual parent consent was not a necessary part of national immunisation policy, although provision of information to parents and communities was important. This was also stressed by other respondents. In Mwanza, parents wanted to be involved in the decision-making process but the consensus was that opt-out consent was acceptable, and there was considerable support for a girl’s right to be vaccinated, even if parents refused their consent. Uganda’s pilot HPV vaccination program also used a similar opt-out approach [20]. No parents in our study reported concerns that the vaccine might stimulate sexual activity, a concern that has sometimes emerged in high-income countries [37] and [38].

Two trials were categorised as blinded but the comparison of interest (exercise vs control) was not concealed from patients, which is part of the blinding criterion (Jadad et al 1996). When this is corrected, the Jadad scale does little to discriminate the quality selleck compound of the included studies, with 13 of the 15 studies scoring 2 out of 5. A sensitivity analysis conducted with a more discriminatory tool would indicate whether the estimate of the

effect changes with study quality. Physiotherapists should advise haemodialysis patients of the benefits of exercise training and prescribe an aerobic and strengthening training regimen tailored to each patient’s fitness, strength, and comorbidities. One issue we must consider carefully when prescribing the regimen is that exercise in non-dialysis periods may improve cardiovascular outcomes more, but exercise during dialysis is associated with greater adherence (Bennett et al 2010). “
“The Dix-Hallpike Test (DHT) is considered the gold standard assessment for the diagnosis of the vestibular disorder Benign Paroxysmal

Positional Vertigo (BPPV). BPPV is described as a ‘spinning’ sensation caused by head Selleck PI3K Inhibitor Library movement that typically lasts for 15 seconds and may be accompanied by nausea. Individuals classically describe these symptoms when turning over in bed but they may also occur when bending down or looking up (Noda et al 2011). BPPV occurs when free-floating debris enters one of the semicircular canals causing the endolymph to become gravity sensitive resulting in abnormal displacement of the cupula and consequential neural firing (Brandt & Steddin 1993). BPPV may be associated with head injuries and various inner ear problems, however in many cases Rutecarpine the cause is idiopathic, occurring at any age but most commonly between 50 and 70 years (Hornibrook 2011). The DHT should be used following a subjective assessment to confirm a diagnosis of BPPV. The DHT (Dix & Hallpike

1952) consists of a series of head movements conducted in order to stimulate the movement of the debris in the posterior semicircular canal which is responsible for symptoms in 90% of cases (Stavros et al 2002). The test can be carried out by any healthcare professional with knowledge of the vestibular system. The patient starts in a sitting position and their head is turned 45° towards the side to be tested. The assessor then assists them to lie down quickly and extends their neck 20° over the end of the plinth, maintaining 45° rotation. The assessor should be able to see the patient’s eyes and should observe for nystagmus. A positive response is elicited if rotational nystagmus is noted. The nystagmus will have a delayed onset of approximately 1–2 seconds following movement and it should subside after 10–20 seconds (Furman & Cass 1999). The direction of nystagmus will reverse on returning to a seated position and it will fatigue on repeated testing.

There is hardly any data on vaccination timeliness in Uganda, but findings from studies having assessed timeliness elsewhere indicate that timely vaccination is often far from optimal [3], [6], [7], [8], [9] and [11]. This strengthens the argument to monitor not only whether children are vaccinated, but also

when they receive the recommended Trametinib research buy vaccines. Despite gradual improvements in vaccination coverage and a large reduction in measles, pertussis and tetanus mortality, in 2008, these diseases were still responsible for about 4% of the child mortality globally, and nearly 6% of around 190 000 child deaths in Uganda [20]. These deaths are vaccine preventable, and diseases such as measles can potentially be eliminated with vaccination [21] and [22]. A coverage rate of measles vaccine exceeding 95% has been indicated as a necessary level when aiming for elimination [23] and [24]. This study population had measles vaccine coverage far below this threshold (80% coverage, and 56% received the measles vaccine within the recommended time period). This leaves

many children susceptible to diseases after their maternal antibodies drop to levels insufficient to protect them [1], [2] and [3]. For the BCG vaccine, it has been suggested that late administration may have an adverse impact [5]. There may also be indirect effects of timing MLN0128 concentration of immunisation, but larger studies are needed before conclusions about these potential effects can be made [10]. For the measles vaccine, it can be argued that early vaccination which was given to 12% in this study is an advantage, but this will then require re-immunisation as evoked immune responses are weakened [23], [25] and [26]. In addition, severely immunocompromised children may develop active measles disease caused by the measles vaccination, which complicates immunisation assessment of some HIV-positive children [27]. Vitamin A was in this

study given to nearly half of the babies already in the neonatal period. There is good Methisazone evidence of a beneficial effect on mortality from vitamin A supplementation between the age of 6 months and 5 years, but conflicting evidence when given early in infancy [28], [29], [30], [31] and [32]. The information on vitamin A from this study exemplifies how self-reported data can differ from recorded data, with an absolute discrepancy of 10%. As it may be difficult to remember whether a capsule was given to the child several months ago, we assume that the prospectively collected data from the health cards is of better quality. The fact that many lost their health cards, further complicates the decision for health personnel on whether the children should give a vaccine or vitamin A dose when they come for a visit to the health clinic. These issues are likely to remain unsolved as long as only paper-based records are used as they are today.

6 While several amino acids are known to accumulate in response to osmotic stress, proline apparently has a specific protective role in the adaptation of plant cells to water deprivation and appears to be the preferred organic osmoticum in many plants.16 and 17 It helps in osmotic adjustment and protection of plasma membrane integrity and acts as a sink of energy or a reducing

power, as a source of carbon and nitrogen, and/or as a hydroxyl radical scavenger. Salinity stress may increase activities of proline biosynthetic enzymes and/or inhibit proline dehydrogenase (ProDH) activity.18 Studying salt stress is an important means to the understanding of plant ion homeostasis and osmo-balance. Salt stress research, benefits agriculture as soil salinity significantly Metabolism inhibitor limits plant productivity on agricultural lands.19 It is evident from the literature that, properties of osmolytes are becoming increasingly useful in molecular biology, agriculture, biotechnology and medicine.20 and 21 Transfer of genes for osmolyte production from salt tolerant into salt-intolerant species is being used to adapt plants for saline find more and drought conditions in agriculture.22 A variety of other stresses viz; oxidative, protein perturbing, etc. can also occur along with water stress, and many osmolytes probably have unique properties that protect cells from these

disturbances, either through cytoprotective metabolic reactions such as anti-oxidation or stabilization of macromolecules through water–solute or solute–macromolecule interactions.21 Among known compatible solutes, proline is the most widely distributed osmolyte.17 Proline, which increases proportionately faster than other amino acids in plants under water stress, Thiamine-diphosphate kinase has been suggested as an evaluating parameter for irrigation scheduling and for selecting drought-resistant varieties.23 Stabilizers are used to prevent aggregation of IgG molecules during manufacture and storage. Proline is used in amino acid infusion material. A 3-h-intravenous infusion of an

amino acid mixture containing l-proline in healthy male volunteers did not result in increased glucose release from the kidneys24; implying that increased blood levels of glucose are not anticipated following l-proline stabilized IVIG infusion. From the literature, the present study intricacies to elucidate the role of osmolyte, accumulation of proline in wheat under the drought conditions of sodium chloride to regulate salt stress. Acid Ninhydrin, 3% Aqueous Sulphosalicyclic Acid, Glacial Acetic Acid, Benzene, Proline and Sodium Chloride were used of analytical reagent of standard company. Colorimeter (Systronics, India) was used for measuring the absorbance to detect the proline contents. Plant material Triticum aestivum was treated with different concentrations of sodium chloride ranging from 0.5 to 5.0 M and the one without the treatment was considered to be control. Plant tissue (0.

(a) HPV 16 PsV NAb vs. HPV 16 cLIA, (b) HPV 16 PsV NAb vs. HPV 16 TIgG, (c) HPV 18 PsV NAb vs. HPV 18 cLIA and (d) MK-1775 datasheet HPV 18 PsV NAb vs. HPV 18 TIgG. Abbreviations: GMT, geometric mean titre; PsV NAb, pseudovirus neutralizing antibody; cLIA, Merck competitive Luminex immunoassay; TIgG, Merck total IgG Luminex immunoassay; NT100, PsV NAb 100% neutralization endpoint; NT90, PsV NAb 90% neutralization endpoint; NTpartial, PsV NAb partial neutralization endpoint. Table 2 shows the proportions of subjects seropositive for HPV 16 and 18 for the three assays through to 36 months post-vaccine. At baseline, 0.1% of PsV NAb NT100 negative subjects were HPV 16 cLIA seropositive and none were HPV 18 cLIA seropositive,

whereas 10.8% and 27.5% respectively were baseline TIgG seropositive. At month 36, HPV 16 antibodies remained detectable in all subjects by click here all three assays. In contrast, beginning at 18 months post-vaccine, HPV 18 antibodies could not be detected by cLIA in a proportion of subjects, and by month 36, 13.6% overall of subjects had no detectable HPV 18 cLIA antibodies. When stratified by study group, HPV 18 cLIA seropositivity at 36 months was 85.9% for 2-dose girls (Group 1), 95.3% for 3-dose girls (Group 2) and 79.4% for 3-dose adults (Group 3) (1 vs. 2 p = 0.11; 1 vs. 3 p = 0.51; 2 vs. 3 p < 0.01). The TIgG assay detected HPV 18 antibodies in most subjects and all subjects were PsV NAb

seropositive (NTpartial endpoint) at 36 months. HPV 16 NT100 GMTs for 2-dose girls were similar to those for 3-dose girls through to 36 months (Table 3), and both 2- and 3-dose girls had HPV 16 NT100 GMTs approximately 2- to 3-fold higher than 3-dose adults at all time points. also For HPV 18, NT100 GMTs were similar for both 2- and 3-dose girls at 7 months, and both groups had higher GMTs than 3-dose adults. At 18, 24 and 36 months, HPV 18 GMTs for 2-dose girls were about 2-fold lower than those for 3-dose girls, but at 36 months, GMTs for 2-dose girls remained similar to those for 3-dose adults. Responses measured

by the cLIA and TIgG assays showed similar patterns. NT90 and NTpartial GMTs for both HPV 16 and 18 were consistently 2- to 8-fold higher respectively than the corresponding NT100 GMTs (Table 3 and Supplementary Fig. 2). Supplementary Fig. II.   HPV 16 and HPV 18 PsV NAb GMTs by study group to month 36. Box plots of month 7 to month 36 PsV NAb (NT100, NT90 and NTpartial) GMTs for HPV 16 and HPV 18 by study group. (a) HPV 16 PsV NAb NT100, (b) HPV 16 PsV NAb NT90, (c) HPV 16 PsV NAb NTpartial, (d) HPV 18 PsV NAb NT100, (e) HPV 18 PsV NAb NT90 and (f) HPV 18 PsV NAb NTpartial. Abbreviations: GMT, geometric mean titre; PsV NAb, pseudovirus neutralizing antibody; cLIA, Merck competitive Luminex immunoassay; TIgG, Merck total IgG Luminex immunoassay; NT100, PsV NAb 100% neutralization endpoint; NT90, PsV NAb 90% neutralization endpoint; NTpartial, PsV NAb partial neutralization endpoint.

We present one example of this occurrence and its uncharacteristic features. A term newborn female was transferred immediately after birth from an outside facility under care of general surgery because of prenatal imaging documenting a large abdominal cyst (>7 cm in largest Selleck PI3K inhibitor dimension). The

child was stable clinically with good urine output and stooling. She had no issues with feeding or respiratory effort in the first days of life. Physical examination revealed an easily palpable abdominal mass on the left side from the costal margin to the pelvic brim that did not cross midline. A complete abdominal ultrasound was performed on day of life 2 (Fig. 1), and the findings were interpreted as a cystic mass with no solid areas or septations but with a slightly thickened

wall. It was medial to the left kidney but without identifiable communication to the kidney or bladder and measuring 10.4 × 4.1 cm. The left kidney had moderate hydronephrosis without hydroureter. The differential diagnoses were a gastrointestinal duplication cyst, an ovarian cyst, or a mesenteric lymphatic malformation. With these considerations, the general surgery team took the child to the operating room for exploration. The cyst was easily identified and discovered to be intimately associated with a healthy appearing left kidney (Figure 2 and Figure 3). The urology team was called for consultation, and the cyst was confirmed to be a severely dilated left renal pelvis. The renal pelvis was opened revealing mild calyceal dilation, and the ureter was easily cannulated with a 5F catheter KRX-0401 molecular weight with no evidence of intrinsic obstruction or presence of obstructive crossing vessels. Owing to lack of evidence of obstruction, a renal pelvis

reduction was performed without intervention at the ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) and no stenting or renal drainage. At 1 month postoperatively, a renal ultrasound revealed mild left hydronephrosis improved from the preoperative study without evidence of a dilated renal pelvis. Voiding cysto-urethrogram did not until show vesicoureteral reflux. A MAG-3 renal scan showed no evidence of obstruction (T1/2 of 4 minutes; 93% emptying) with 51.4% differential uptake of the left kidney. An extrarenal collecting system presenting as a cystic abdominal mass has been reported although infrequently in the published literature.1, 2 and 3 All previous reports have assumed or demonstrated UPJ obstruction in association with the dilated renal pelvis as would seem logical. These patients underwent a pyeloplasty with reconstruction of the UPJ. This case is unique in that no UPJ obstruction was observed or demonstrated during or after surgery without reconstruction of the UPJ. The etiology for this massively dilated extrarenal pelvis is, therefore, unclear but would suggest a developmental malformation. The child will continue to have monitoring with periodic renal ultrasound to assure stability of this left system.

6E and F). Figure 6 Quantification of the number of mature neurons in the MS/VDB and CPu. (A–D) Neurons stained for the mature NeuN in wild-type (A, B) and L1-deficient mice (C, D) at 2 weeks of age at the level of the MS/VDB, CPu, and lateral ventricles (LV). Scale … Discussion The present study reveals a novel role for L1 in the temporal maturation of septal cholinergic neurons and in the regulation of ChAT. Specifically, L1-deficient mice had significantly less (20%) ChAT-positive neurons in the MS/VDB selleck screening library compared to their littermate controls at 2 weeks of

age. Significant reductions in the levels of ChAT protein (53%) and ChAT Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical activity (40%) in the MS/VDB of L1-deficient mice compared to wild-type littermates at 2 weeks of age were also found. Using stereological analyses, all ChAT-positive cells are counted regardless of the

levels of ChAT protein or enzyme activity, which likely explains the smaller difference found in the number of ChAT-positive neurons Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (20%) compared to the 53% reduction Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in total ChAT protein and the 40% reduction of active ChAT in 2-week-old L1-deficient mice compared to wild-type littermates. By 4 weeks of age, the number of ChAT-positive neurons and levels of ChAT activity in the MS/VDB were no longer statistically different in L1-deficient compared to control mice, suggesting that L1 is involved in the maturation of a cholinergic phenotype and not in the survival of cholinergic neurons, a role which

is attributed to nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) (Chen et al. 1997; Ward and Hagg 2000). Much remains to be investigated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to elucidate the full impact of L1 on the development, maturation, and function of the cholinergic septohippocampal system. For example, given the fact that less septal Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical cholinergic neurons and lower levels of ChAT protein and activity are detected in 2-week-old L1-deficient mice, along with the well-characterized role of L1 in axonal growth, guidance, and synaptic plasticity (Maness and Schachner 2007), there is a strong possibility that septohippocampal L-NAME HCl axonal projections will not develop and mature normally in absence of L1. This could ultimately result in deficits in cholinergic neurotransmission in the hippocampus, explaining some learning and memory impairments detected in adult L1-deficient mice Maness and Schachner 2007. The absence of the cell cycle marker in the septum at 2 and 4 weeks of age ruled out the possibility of abnormal cell division in the MS/VDB in L1-deficient mice. It remains to be established whether the lower number of ChAT-positive cells estimated in the MS/VDB of 2-week-old L1-deficient mice compared to wild-type littermates reflects a lower detection of the ChAT protein rather than less cholinergic neurons per se.