Moreover, mice in which DCs express a dominant negative TGF-β receptor show enhanced susceptibility to experimentally induced autoimmune encephalitis [59]. This indicates that DCs are targeted by TGF-β-mediated suppression. In addition, DC-specific deletion of integrin αvβ8, which mediates the activation of latent TGF-β, results in autoimmunity [60]. Among many other cell types, Treg cells can produce TGF-β. Cell contact-dependent suppression of naïve CD4+ T cells by Treg cells could be blocked in vitro by TGF-β-specific Abs [61], and TGF-β-deficient Treg cells were unable to prevent the development of colitis development

following their Selleck Torin 1 cotransfer with naïve CD4+ T cells into RAG-deficient mice [60]. Surprisingly, selective

TGF-β inactivation in Treg cells did not result in any autoimmune phenotype [62]. Thus, although TGF-β signaling in DCs seems to be crucial for peripheral tolerance, it remains to be established whether TGF-β is a mediator of DC suppression by Treg cells. Finally, Treg cells modulate the cytoplasmic levels of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) in DCs to suppress their activation. Pharmacological agents that elevate cAMP levels suppress DC function [63]. In addition, Treg cells Nivolumab research buy have been shown to be able to modulate cAMP in target cells through the generation of pericellular adenosine. Treg cells express the ectoenzymes CD39 and CD73, which catalyze the generation of adenosine from extracellular nucleotides [64]. Signaling via the G-protein-coupled adenosine receptors increases cAMP levels in target cells such as T cells [64] and DCs [65]. Treg cells, which have constitutively high cytoplasmic cAMP BCKDHB levels [66], can also directly suppress DCs by transferring cAMP via gap junctions [67, 68]. A crucial prerequisite for the tolerogenic potential of steady-state DCs is the downregulation

of CD70 expression. Transgenic overexpression of CD70 on steady-state DCs alone has been found sufficient to convert T-cell tolerance into immune reactivity [69]. In the absence of interactions with Treg cells, DCs express elevated levels of CD70 [44] and blocking of CD70 with an mAb abrogated CTL priming by such unsuppressed steady-state DCs [70]. Thus, down-modulation of CD70 expression on DCs seems to be an important mechanism through which Treg cells maintain the tolerogenic potential of steady-state DCs. As discussed above, it is evident that constant suppression by Treg cells is required for maintaining the tolerogenic phenotype of steady-state DCs. However, the signals that drive DC maturation in the absence of Treg cells are not fully defined. Many receptors can induce the maturation of DCs in response to PAMPs, alarmins, proinflammatory cytokines, and TNF receptor superfamily ligands. Many of these DC-activating signals ultimately drive DC maturation through activation of the trancription factor NF-κB.