Meanwhile, we found aberrant expression of some proteins associated with oxidative stress, nitric oxide and the ubiquitin-proteasome system. AGEs, a marker for oxidative stress, which was over-expressed in abnormal fibres as

reported previously [18], can promote the abnormal oxidation of aggregated proteins. Over-expression of eNOS, associated with reduction of nitric oxide, may result in protein nitration and motivate toxic reactivity of aggregated proteins [18]. Mutant ubiquitin is a kind of misreading ubiquitin. Over-expression of mutant ubiquitin in the abnormal fibres indicated that the mutant desmin can impair the proteolytic function of the ubiquitin-proteasome system. The over-expression of p62 could be a response to disturbance of the ubiquitin-mediated this website process [19]. Up to now, a total of 44 mutations responsible for desminopathy have been identified in the world. Many mutations were clustered in the helix 2B domain of desmin, and formed the hotspot region in Caucasian populations [8,34]. However, it is interesting that so many de

novo mutations (six of seven mutations) of the desmin gene were identified in the current series of patients. A different genetic background in affected patients is likely to further modify the clinical manifestations of disease in different Selleck Roxadustat populations. The novel S12F mutation located in the first site of a highly conserved nonpeptide motif (SSYRRTFGG) in the head domain of desmin is shared by other human intermediate filaments and conserved in the evolutionary tree. The loss of the Ser12 residue might alter the phosphorylation in the head domain, click here thus affecting desmin filament assembly and disassembly [22,35]. The four other mutations in helix 1A, 2A and 2B of the rod domain affected the mosaic arrangement of hydrophilic and

hydrophobic amino acids in the conserved heptad repeat. The changes were likely to decrease the local flexibility of a coiled-coil rod domain, thus obstructing the proper assembly of desmin intermediate filaments [36]. The T445A and E457V mutations were located in the highly conserved β-turn motif of the tail domain, which seems to be essential for inter-protofibrillar stability and width control, and thus interfered with the binding of desmin filaments to other proteins that are cofactors of the cytoskeleton, or parts of muscle-specific signalling cascades [37]. Since all novel mutations were distributed in several domains of desmin, it seemed unlikely that Chinese patients belonged to a distinctive group of desminopathy. Our functional studies provided compelling evidence that six mutants severely affected the ability of desmin to produce a filamentous network in a desmin-negative cell line.